Author’s Note: In 2017, I wrote a short article about the Pali term ‘Bhavana’ and since then, I have been asked to write a more in-depth article regarding the meaning and application of this term in its Pali and Sanskrit context (both different and yet overlapping in places). Whereas in my earlier article (referenced below) I focused a great deal on the Chinese language term for ‘bhavana’ - in this outing I have limited myself to just the briefest of references to the Chinese equivalent – an act of considerable will-power considering Chinese Buddhism is one of my academic specialities (both ethnically and academically). However, I have always held the Theravada tradition in high regard and have been helped tremendously by its many practitioners and institutions around the world! From my Chinese Ch’an practice (and penetration of the empty mind ground) - I have come to see and appreciate how the many different branches of Buddhism (and reality in general) all manifest from the same stout trunk... Although what I convey to you is academically correct – you do not have to accept my conclusions. Always think for yourselves and make-up your own minds! ACW (17.9.2021) 

When I was studying Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka (in 1996), a term I came across continuously was ‘bhavana’ (‘भावना’ Pali and ‘भवन’ Sanskrit) - this was invariably used to refer to the act of seated ‘meditation’ and all the psychological and physical discipline required to successfully carry-out this important Buddhist practice. Indeed, within the Chinese written language, ‘bhavana’ is referred to as ‘修習’ (Xiu Xi) - or a central method of mind-body transformation – literally ‘self-cultivation method(s) or ‘habits’’ or ‘disciplined paths which intersect at a certain point of development’. A more succinct translation could be ‘paths of self-discipline' with the caveat that what is being suggested is the strict disciplining of the mind and body through the correct application of the Vinaya Discipline and the Bodhisattva Vows. Therefore, the single act of seated meditation has a wealth of supporting disciplinary activities surrounding its application, and does not appear does not suddenly appear out of a vacuum of non-effort. In other words, ‘bhavana’ refers to an act of ‘meditation’ which is the summation of the entire Buddhist path! Although the emphasis was always upon seated meditation, of course, standing, sitting and lying-down is allowed in the Buddhist Suttas – which very much depends upon the meditation teacher and the practitioner involved. Compassion, loving-kindness and wisdom must always be the driving force behind the practice of ‘bhavana’. 

As a ‘noun’, the Sanskrit dictionary states that भवन (bhavana) refers to: 

1. building, edifice 

1. house, dwelling, residence 

1. mansion, palace 

1. place of abode 

Although this Sanskrit term has a wide variety of meanings, it can also refer to act of ‘coming into existence’, through the process of birth and production, etc. In other words, something that was not once present now becomes present – with ‘bhavana’ used to describe the process of it ‘becoming’ real and visible within the material world. However, these terms are still ‘objective’ in nature and do not directly refer to the Buddha’s meaning of the term.  
​
The Pali dictionary suggests that ‘bhavana’ (भावना) refers to 'mental development' (lit. 'calling into existence, producing') in what in English is generally referred to 'meditation'. The Theravada School of Buddhism distinguishes two types of bhavana: 

1. development of tranquillity (samatha-bhāvanā), i.e. concentration (samādhi), and 

1. development of insight (vipassanā-bhāvanā), i.e. wisdom (paññā). 

The practice of self-cultivation is in fact the act of ‘self-building’. It is the act of constructing an ability or abode of being that was not previously existent. Once achieved, tranquillity and insight are destined to become permanent attributes of the character of one who has successfully trained in the practice of ‘meditation’ (bhavana). This is the new spiritual dwelling the mind and body inhabits from now on. There is some suggestion that this term could be related to the ancient forms of cultivating the fields, planting and growing the fruit and vegetables, and harvesting the resulting crops. For every step of this process to work – the farmers of North India must keep correctly contemplating the land, the weather and the time of year. Once all this is correctly established – then the farmers must apply correct timing to everything they do. Only then will there be a good harvest at the end of all this effort.  

Interestingly, the very similar Sanskrit term ‘भावना’ (bhāvnā) refers to feeling, sensation, emotion and sentiment and is certainty moving toward the Buddhist (Pali) implications. Perhaps the Buddha modified a Pali term which once referred to the external practice of building houses and cultivating fields for farming – but changed its onus from this ‘objective’ meaning to a purely ‘subjective’ meaning relating to states of mind and patterns of thought and emotion. Just as rocks, weeds and stones are removed from the soil to make it fertile – the Buddhist practitioner uproots greed, hatred and delusion from the psychic fabric of the mind so that the mind becomes ‘fertile’ to receive the fruits of Buddhist self-cultivation. The Pali term appears to be referring to ‘that which arises from within’ - whilst the Sanskrit term is referring to ‘that which arises from without’. I would suggest that the inner perception of boundless space integrates with the awareness of boundless outer space – and that this is how the Buddha ultimately reconciles the two distinct meanings of this term. If a practitioner applies the Dhamma correctly – then like a plant growing from a seed into a might tree – the fruits of the Dhamma will manifest in the mind, body (and through behaviour) the environment!  

References: 
https://www.definify.com/word/भवन 
https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/bhavana 
https://thesanghakommune.org/2017/09/20/buddhism-pali-bhavana-and-chinese-chan/ 
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_5d3204f50100btsz.html 

This text is from Charles Luk's English translation of Master Xu Yun's Chinese Language biography rendered into English as 'Empty Cloud - The Biography of the Chinese Zen Master Xu Yun' (compiled by Xen Cue Lu) and edited by Richard Hunn (1988) - Published by Element Books. The Copyright to this text belongs to the Luk family - particularly Irene Luk - the daughter of Charles Luk. 

​When deploying the Ch'an Method in the West - it is often the case the the recipient does comprehend even the most basic requirements of Ch'an! This is despite shaving their heads, wearing robes and hiding behind foreign names... They think this dualistic attitude is Ch'an and the legitimate Ch'an Method is nothing but a dualistic attitude! Such people defend their ego and want their teachers to defend their egos also. Anyone who displays genuine Ch'an, however, is treated by these people as 'errors' and individuals who possess no 'wisdom' or 'liberating ability!' This if the False Ch'an that is popular, well funded, and very popular. By comparison, genuine Ch'an works from the shadows and influences existence without seeking recognition or even being understood that it is present! Void is forever present, but False Ch'an resides strictly within the realm of 'Form' to which it is attached. Genuine Ch'an is effective because it underlies all phenomena without discrimination. Even False Ch'an arises from the empty mind ground but its practitioners do not want to know this or realise it for themselves, and remain stuck within the world of material attachment. With such profound stupidity - there is not even enough stable area to administer thirty blows with a stick!

​Dear Jacques

Charles Luk (1898-1978) was born in Guangdong - an area of international interaction. During the pro-Western Nationalist Revolution of 1911/12 - he would have been around 13-14 years of age. Even prior to this, he may well have been exposed to English settlement (and schooling) in the Guangzhou area. He remained very tight-lipped about his education - possibly because it may have been missionary-based and he did not believe in the Western religion. 

From what I gather, Charles studied under a Mongolian Lama who lived in the Sichuan area of South-West China (where millions of Tibetans also live). He was interested in the Phowa method of consciousness-transformation at the point of death. This had no bearing on his training with Master Xu Yun (1840-1959). Ch'an and Phowa are two independent and different methods - with Phowa being a preparation for the dying procedure - although traditionally Ch'an Master did not require this.

Within China, the current biography of Master Xu Yun is much longer than that translated compiled by Cen Xue Lu and translated by Charles Luk - which is now out of date despite being the only blue-print available in the West. Empty Cloud conveys the basic story even though there are some errors, etc.

https://icbi.weebly.com/chrsquoan-master-jing-hui---history-of-master-xu-yunrsquos-complete-biographical-text.html

One of my Chinese students presented me with a 'new' version and it is very interesting - giving a more all round perspective. Xen Xue Lu also altered the text slightly to give a certain bias toward the reading - as did Charles Luk. Neither were happy with Xu Yun's criticism of Tibetan Buddhism or Christianity! It is also interesting to note the complete absence of the recording of the Nationalist destruction of the Shaolin Temple (in Henan) during 1928 - the traditional home of Ch'an Buddhism in China! Cen Xue Lu admits in his biography that he once worked for the Nationalist government which pursued a policy of clearing land of temples to build housing, schools and hospitals, etc, a policy he later rejected as a 'mistake'. Charles Luk removed Xu Yun's letter to Chiang Kai-Shek criticising his embracing of the foreign religion of Christianity:

https://wenshuchan-online.weebly.com/xu-yunrsquos-letter-to-chiang-kai-shek.html

Both scholars retained the majority of Xu Yun's text and certainly did not alter his teaching method directly - but through omissions and the strategic placing of details, a certain politic trajectory is established through the editing and translation processes - giving the mistaken impression that such an interpretation was present in Xu Yun's original text - when in fact Xu Yun was very careful to be 'apolitical' whilst dealing directly with what was going on around him. In other words, the political sway of Empty Cloud represents the politics of the era as interpreted by Cen Xue Lu and Charles Luk (both of whom ended-up living in the British Colony of Hong Kong). 

Best Wishes

​Adrian

Sitting-up with neck and back support in a comfortable chair can be useful - but lying down is just as good. Posture can involve any relevant position that you need rather than conformity to a universal standard. The Buddha talks of standing, walking, sitting and lying-down (he died lying on his right-side). The point is that a posture should allow an individual to 'forget' about the body. 

Pain is one of the three stages of sensation mentioned by the Buddha - together with 'pleasure' and 'neurality'. A convenient meditation posture should generate either a relaxed 'pleasure' or an indifferent 'neutrality' to the body. However, pain has the ability to 'breakthrough' any indifference being cultivated - until the 'indifference' becomes stronger than the pain.

If you focus on 'Who is hearing?' and attempt to return all that is heard back to its non-perceptual essence - then the empty mind ground will be revealed. If a single sense can be 'returned' in this manner, then ALL of the other five senses (smell, touch, sight and touch) will automatically be returned generating a permanent unity of inner vision. Gone will be the duality that separates mind, body and environment. When this is achieved, pain is transformed into a distant 'drop' of water falling into the ocean...

Knowing when to ‘assert’ and when to ‘give-way’ are important attributes for any spiritual traveller. As human-beings, we can find ourselves in all kind of circumstance as the day unfolds and our life progresses. Much of this will be mundane, but occasionally reality will take a shocking turn for the worst! No one saw the Covid19 pandemic arriving and virtually everyone was taken by surprise – despite numerous horror films over the years expressing narratives involving dystopic futures on a planet ravished by some type of illness, plague or other torturous device! Usually, such story-lines involve society collapsing back into an armed feudalism where brutality is the order of the day. Only the strong survive by preying on the weak. Of course, due to poverty and asymmetric economic development around the world, many people already live in these hellish conditions. I would add that even within the so-called ‘civilised’ areas of the world – killing and barbarity still exists – although it is hidden to a far greater extent (like a bad dream that people would rather forget).  

Most people grow-up in the world learning to survive. Indeed, this is a crucial and necessary skill. It is not the skill of the huntsman or gathering skills of the scavenger – but rather the ability to navigate the character and personality of our fellow human-beings. Children can be cruel and adults can be deceptive – for many these observations are facts of life. This imbalance in the inner and outer environment must be dealt with in one way or another. Ch’an is not an easy undertaking because it requires a devoted self-effort to take on our own inner world before we set about attempting to make changes in our outer worlds. Many will attack and ridicule any attempt at self-discipline – but for the world to be a better place – self-discipline is exactly what is required. Looking within with clarity and steadfastness eventually develops to looking without with wisdom and knowledge!  

Our personal circumstance can vary wildly through our lives. Many will experience poverty, homelessness, abuse and all kinds of deprivations – whilst others will experience only affluence and relative well-being, etc. The point is that regardless of the differences that define our outer existence, the empty mind ground is exactly the same for all beings! Master Xu Yun (1840-1959) lived a life continuously ‘gazing’ at the empty mind ground without any deviation whatsoever! More to the point – Master Xu Yun integrated his expedient self (or that which will eventually fall away) with the permanent and ever-present empty mind ground! Regardless of the situation he found himself in, or the circumstances he had to traverse – Master Xu Yun judged human reality not from the ego infected with greed, hatred and delusion – but rather from the pure and clean empty mind ground which underlies all reality and permeates the universe without end! Knowing where to place oneself in the phenomenal world - so as to maximise compassion, wisdom and loving kindness – is exactly possessing the skill of ‘moving’ and remaining ‘still’ in all situations!  

Master Xu Yun (1840-1959) inherited all Five Schools of Ch'an Buddhism. So respected was his spiritual attainments that he was even transmitted lineages that he had not formally trained within - but whose teachers recognised that his depth of insight, humility and compassion fully equalled the divine levels of attainment that their schools demanded! In other words, without going out of his room, he knew all things (to quote the 'Book of Changes'). Chinese culture is very different to that of the modern West - despite the obvious similarities and intersections.  

Within the schools of Chinese spirituality - individuals can live very long periods time - and lineages can be passed from long-dead Masters to living Teachers and Practitioners! There is no need to justify any of this, it is just how things are - pure and simple. Lineages are like streams that flow into mighty rivers and then the sea! A genuine lineage should have a compelling force all of its own that propels adherents toward the intended spiritual goal! A true lineage is like an ever-moving conveyor-belt that moves everything along - continuously - and in the same direction! We must all set a good example for our colleagues, students and descendants! If we cultivate virtue and set a good example - then by our pure actions we are 'adding' momentum to the lineages we represent! 

Many people are surprised to learn that Master Xu Yun (1840-1959) was subject to a more or less continuous stream of allegations claiming that he routinely ‘broke’ the Vinaya Discipline and the Bodhisattva Vows. These assertions were usually made by common people with an axe to grind for some reason or other. The fact that no one took these allegations seriously is simply because no one who mattered believed any of it to be true. Master Xu Yun was accused of seducing young girls and women, as well as pursuing homosexual relationships with young monks. When these reports were found to be groundless – Master Xu Yun was accused of amassing money and using it to lead a life of luxury and leisure! Again, no evidence was ever found and so these allegations were ignored like all the others. When he was married (in his late teens) Master Xu Yun never touched his two wives. Years later, this was confirmed by these (now elderly) ladies who had become ordained Buddhist nuns after their husband left to become a monk around 1858. These ladies were virginal when they entered the Buddhist nunnery. 

My personal experience of Chinese monastic communities, as well as from the memories of other Western people who also lived as a Buddhist monk in China, confirm that homosexuality (as well as any type of sexual expression) was not present. This is because the facility of human desire is ‘turned inward’ and transmutated into pure spiritual light and energy that emanates from the centre of the forehead and from there permeates the entire body and environment. This process detaches sexual energy from the sexual organs and diverts the imagination of the mind away from sexual fulfilment through the sexual organ, focusing on ‘returning’ all this sensation back toward the empty mind ground. There is no outward sexual reaction or perversion within the average Chinese Ch’an monastery because the subject-object dichotomy that drives the sexual drive within delusive society no longer exists.  ​

There is a point in this process where the sexual drive is transformed forever regardless of circumstance. Although a conducive environment is beneficially to start with, eventually, once the six senses are permanently ‘purified’ and ‘cleansed’, then a lay-men such as Vimalakirti and Hui Neng (prior to the latter’s eventual ordination) where able to live within ordinary society and yet never break their Vinaya Discipline. Vimalakirti had a number of wives and numerous children – and yet the Buddha stated that he ‘never’ broke the vow of celibacy. Vimalakirti also criticised the Buddha’s ordained disciple Upali (a Master of the Vinaya Disciple) for being attached (in the wrong) way to the ‘letter of the law’. Vimalakirti stated that being ‘attached’ to celibacy in such a one-sided manner was as bad as being mindlessly attached to sexual pleasure! The answer is that ‘pleasure’, ‘pain’ and ‘neutrality’ are all perceived to be equally ‘empty’ of any and all permanent reality. All emerge from the empty mind ground as karmic attributes that simply take the form that is implicitly conditioned within each strand of expression. This Mahayana penetrating of all phenomena is very different to Upali’s Hinayana notion of just avoiding ‘pleasure’, etc.  

It is the same for ‘praise’ and ‘blame’, as both are equally ‘empty’ of any intrinsic or separate value. A practitioner who has penetrated the empty mind ground exists in a permanent state of divine indifference and are unmoved by either praise or blame. Reacting to the ignorance of others with the same ignorance does not happen because it cannot happen. Once the empty mind ground has been permanently penetrated, understood and integrated with, then there is never any slipping back to a more deficient position of understanding. People who operate through the ego are continuously attempting to make some kind of social gain through manipulating those around them.  A Ch’an Master sees this straightaway and reveals the underlying reality of those who approach with ulterior motives. All is wisdom, loving kindness and compassion.